Greener analytical methods for fragrance quality control: Replacing helium with hydrogen and nitrogen in gas chromatography–mass spectrometry/flame ionization detection

This study aimed to develop and evaluate alternative analytical methods for fragrance analysis by replacing conventional helium with greener carrier gases in gas chromatography–mass spectrometry/flame ionization detection (GC–MS/FID). Using both conventional (0.25 mm dc) and reduced internal diameter (0.18 mm dc) columns, hydrogen and nitrogen were evaluated for the first time against the reference helium method for the analysis of complex fragrances. The method translation involved the optimization of flow rates and temperature programs to achieve faster analysis times. Hydrogen enabled a significant reduction in analysis time and improved signal-to-noise (S/N) ratios due to narrower peak widths, whereas nitrogen, although safer and inert, resulted in lower sensitivity and altered mass spectral fragmentation that necessitated dedicated spectral libraries. Quantitative and qualitative performances were compared by assessing resolution, limits of detection and quantification, spectral similarity, absolute and relative quantification. Furthermore, a comprehensive evaluation based on the Red-Green-Blue model integrated analytical performance, environmental impact, and practical efficiency. The results demonstrated that the hydrogen-based methods, in particular when using gas generators, achieved a more balanced performance with reduced energy consumption and lower environmental footprint, maintaining robust analytical capabilities. Overall, the proposed methods provide a viable and greener alternative for routine quality control in the fragrance industry and supports the development of sustainable and regulatory-compliant analytical methods in line with the Green Analytical Chemistry principles.