Aflatoxin B1 and Ochratoxin A in Commercial Plant-Based Meat Alternatives: Occurrence, Ingredient-Level Exploratory Patterns, and Dietary Risk

Plant-based meat alternatives (PBMAs) are increasingly consumed, yet their mycotoxin profile remains undercharacterized. In this study, aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and ochratoxin A (OTA) were investigated in commercially available PBMAs and assessed dietary exposure under a full-substitution scenario. Ingredient-level patterns (legume- vs cereal-based matrices), estimated daily intake (EDI), and risk via the margin of exposure (MOE) and combined MOE (MOET) were explored. Concentration patterns were toxin-specific: AFB1 was observed in legume-based products, whereas OTA clustered in cereal-based products. Among OTA-positive samples, burgers and other formats showed no material difference, indicating that elevated values are not confined to a single product format. Under the conservative full-substitution scenario, MOE/MOET values were below 10,000, indicating potential concern per EFSA, largely driven by OTA and a small subset of higher-contaminated items. Mycotoxin occurrence in PBMAs reflects the underlying ingredient matrix (legumes vs cereals) rather than a specific commercial format. In the present dataset, this full-substitution scenario represents a conservative upper bound; real-world exposure is expected to be lower under partial replacement and heterogeneous consumption. These results provide actionable evidence for risk managers and product developers. Particular attention was given to products marketed toward vegetarian and vegan consumers, which may not always fall unambiguously under existing commodity-specific maximum limits for mycotoxins in European legislation. Consequently, a more rigorous screening of the PBMA market in Europe is suggested, with the aim of further refining risk assessments.